Caucuses

This image is of a Democratic (Bernie Sanders) supporter at the University of Northern Iowa in Cedar Falls, Iowa, before the Iowa Caucus in January 2016.

Caucuses are meetings often held in local facilities, such as town/city halls, school halls and sporting arenas. The function of caucuses is for the two major parties to debate and discuss their views on their potential presidential candidates and eventually select who they will send to the party's national convention. However, the Republicans and the Democrats use caucuses slightly differently. The Republicans have been known to cast secret ballots in order to choose their candidate, whereas the Democrats tend to physically group themselves according to the candidate that they support and then look at the results to decide who to choose.

Caucuses are not used to select presidential candidates, they are used to merely select delegates who will go forward and vote on behalf of the caucus participates for their party's presidential candidates. It is argued that caucuses are not conventional for modern day elections. However they remain significant in including people in local politics that can in turn have a large impact on the United States on the whole. Perhaps the most famous example of a caucuse is the Iowa Caucuse, which is held every two years. There is a strong belief that these caucuses allow people who are not necessarily the most educated or wealthy American the chance to participate somewhat and feel valued in local politics, something which is very important in American ideology.




References:

http://www.cfr.org/elections/us-presidential-nominating-process/p37522 
http://people.howstuffworks.com/question721.htm

The Seperation of Powers

The concept of separation of powers in the United States was used by the founding fathers in order to stop the government becoming over mighty and to limit its power over the people it was created to serve. At the national level the three main branches of government: the legislature, the executive and the judiciary are separate and each has powers to limit the other branches, these powers to limit are known as checks and balances.

 Examples of these checks and balances are the Supreme Court’s power to declare a law unconstitutional, as they did with the banning of gay marriage which was said to violate the 14^th amendment. The Supreme courts power to do this can be seen as hindering effective government because they can just decide which laws are and aren’t constitutional and actually lawful. This is balanced out by the ability of the President to nominate Supreme Court judges and them to be appointed after approval by the senate.

The president has the power to veto legislation that congress has passed. This power, as with others, can be seen to hinder effective government because it can be hard for a government to move forward with its agenda. This is a hindrance to the government of the United States as it can take a while to pass legislation. This can also be seen as a negative to the concept of checks and balances. It can also be seen in a positive light however as it makes the government think about the law they are passing and makes them more suited to the country’s wants and needs.

The power of the president to veto legislation can be overturned by congress with a two thirds majority vote in both houses. Therefore this has only been successful in a few instances.

The separation of powers was not created by the founding fathers with the intention to slow and hinder governmental practices and it was seen as effective and well aging by the founding fathers. There are however alternatives to a separation of powers that still provides an effective government. A prime example of this is the government of the United Kingdom which uses a fusion of powers. That means that the legislature and executive are made up of the same people in Parliament. This way of running a government may have been avoided by the founding fathers as they wanted their new country to be distinctly different to the British whose rule they had just broken free from. However this fusion of powers can also be seen to be over mighty as the Party with the majority in the House of Commons has control over the whole country and may be too powerful. The lack of a codified constitution with entrenched provisions in the UK also makes it far easier to change laws and the constitution as the government does not need to stick to defined rules set out in a constitution as their American counterparts do. In a sense this means that the British constitution is not hindered as it lacks the control over its different branches as they are all molded into one.

An Aspect of the American Political System: The Supreme Court

The Supreme Court

The Supreme Court compromises of the Chief Justice and Associate Justices. The number of the associates is fixed by congress and they are nominated by the President, and appointed with the consent of the Senate. Today, there are eight Associate Justices in the Supreme Court and there are Court Officers who help with its effective functioning.[1]

Comparing the branches, Court has members appointed, not elected, and it’s the only judicial body named in the Constitution where it’s powers and commitments are prescribed.[2] It is the final court of appeal and its able to pronounce any action by another branch unconstitutional. It is also the only power able to challenge or declare a state law unconstitutional.

Through checks and balances, it can be influenced and challenged by the other branches. The President can influence the Court through appointing the Federal Judge; who normally shares the President’s politics and social philosophy, or seeking support from the public or Congress. Additionally, Congress can adjust the size and administration of the Associates. A Court ruling could be overturned by amending the Constitution. For example, after Oregon v. Mitchell (1970) the Supreme Court ruling that was overturned by Congress with the ratification of the 26^th Amendment which extended the voting age to 18 year olds.[3]

The Court is arguably more passive due to the lack of bureaucracy in the government, shown after cases including Brown v. Board of Education, Topeka (1954), where the ruling was not in fact enforced until federal legislation was implemented to outlaw de jure segregation.[4] However it has made important changes in society from Griswold V. Connecticut (1965) overturning state laws banning contraception, to the ruling on same-sex marriage (2015).[5]

Sources:

McKay David, American Politics and Society. UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.
Bowles Nigel, McMahon Robert, Government and Politics of the United States. Baskingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.
https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/briefoverview.aspx

Photo:

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/27/us/supreme-court-same-sex-marriage.html?_r=1

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[1] Supreme Court of the United States, A Brief Overview of the Supreme Court, https://www.supremecourt.gov/about/briefoverview.aspx.

[2] Nigel Bowles, Robert McMahon, Government and Politics of the United States (Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014) p.211, 218.

[3] David McKay, American Politics and Society. (UK: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009), pp.331-332

[4] McKay, Politics and Society, p.336.

[5] Bowles, McMahon, Government and Politics, p.216.

The Supreme Court

The Supreme Court

The Supreme Court is the highest federal court in the United States of America and is situated in Washington D.C. It was established in 1789 and only deals cases about federal law. It is only court that is established by the United States Constitution and therefore all decisions are made here all the other courts must follow. The Supreme Court is detailed in Article III of the Constitution and is the only court to be established in the Constitution as the others were created by congress. Article III, Section I states that "The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish." Congress then exercised this power in the Judiciary Act 1789, which created a Supreme Court with six justices. 

There are currently 8 justices (judges) who serve for life and they are picked by the president. However there are usually 9 but one of the judges died recently so his seat will be empty until Obama decides on his successor. There is a chief justice and 8 associates. The chief justice is currently John Roberts so the current Court is called ‘Roberts Court’. The justices are often categorized as having either conservative moderate or liberal philosophies of law and a judicial interpretation. 

The Supreme Court is important for the U.S constitutional system of government, because firstly as it is the highest court in the country it is the last resort looking for justice as well as playing an important role in ensuring each government recognizes the limits of its power. The Supreme Court also ensures laws that may harm or take advantage of minorities do not get passed, such as changing views of a majority do not undermine vital values i.e the freedom of speech. Therefore the decisions made by the Supreme Court have an impact on society as a whole not only those in politics. 

http://www.uscourts.gov/about-federal-courts/educational-resources/about-educational-outreach/activity-resources/about

An Aspect of the Political System - The Electoral College - Post by Marilyn Kinnon

The Electoral College

Summary
The Electoral college is  the system by which the president  and vice president of the United States are chosen. It is a process not a place. It was devised by the framers of the United States Constitution to provide a method of election that was feasible, desirable, and consistent with a republican form of government.The founding fathers established it in the Constitution as a compromise between election of the President by a vote in Congress and election of the President by a popular vote of qualified citizens.

 Historians have suggested a variety of reasons for the adoption of the electoral college, including: 

1. concerns about the separation of powers
2.  the relationship between the executive and legislative branches
3.  the balance between small and large states 
4. slavery
5. the perceived dangers of direct democracy. 

One supporter of the electoral college, Alexander Hamilton, argued that while it might not be perfect, it was “at least excellent." Originally electors met and voted for 2 people.

History
  The processes of the Electoral College have been subject to a number of modifications over the years. In the C18 informal caucuses began to develop along party lines and this lead to the Twelfth Amendment in 1804 which specified separate ballots for president and vice president and reduced the number of candidates from which the House could choose from five to three. This development of political parties coincided with the expansion of popular choice. By 1836 all states selected their electors by direct popular vote except South Carolina, which did so only after the Civil War.

https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/electoral-college/map/predict.htmlhttps://www.archives.gov/federal-register/electoral-college/map/predict.html

Current processes

 .
The Electoral College process consists of the the selection of the electors, the meeting of the electors where they vote for President and Vice President, and the counting of the electoral votes by Congress.

The Electoral College consists of 538 electors. A majority of 270 electoral votes is required to elect the President.

Each state’s entitled allotment of electors equals the number of members in its Congressional delegation: one for each member in the House of Representatives plus two for their Senators.

Each candidate running for President in each state has his or her own group of electors. 

The electors are generally chosen by the candidate’s political party, but state laws vary on how the electors are selected and what their responsibilities are.

The presidential election is held every four years on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. Voters help choose their state’s electors when they vote for President because when they vote for their candidate they are actually voting for their candidate’s electors.

Most states have a “winner-take-all” system that awards all electors to the winning presidential candidate.

Sources:

https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/electoral-college/about.html

Electoral college 2016. Britannica Academic. Retrieved 28 October 2016, from http://academic.eb.com.winchester.idm.oclc.org/levels/collegiate/article/32264

5. The Bicameral Congress

The House of Representatives

Powers

The House of Representatives' power is established in Article I of the United States Constitution. The House's major power is to pass federal legislation (affecting the whole country), although its bills must also be passed by the senate and agreed to by the President before they can become law. The House has some exclusive powers such as the power to initiate revenue bills regarding matters of tax or to impeach an official such as the president (accuse them of unlawful conduct for which they will be tried in the senate, though this is extremely rare). The House will also elect the U.S. President if there is no majority in the electoral college. Finally, representatives in the House are supposed to represent the interests of the people from their congressional district who voted them into office, giving them a voice in government.

Format

Each U.S. State is represented in the House in proportion to its population as measured in the census, though every state is entitled to at least one representative. This is known as proportional representation. California, the most populous state, currently has 53 representatives while Alaska, Montana, Vermont, Delaware, North & South Dakota and Wyoming have a single representative. Overall, there are 435 representatives, as is fixed under law. The Constitution gives the House the power to expel a member with a two-thirds majority vote.

Appointment

In order to to be eligible to be elected to the House, you must be 25 years old, a U.S. Citizen for 7 years and a legal resident of the state you hope to represent.

Each congressional district in each state elects a single representative which is why they are known as single-member districts. The number of districts is determined by the national census which happens every 10 years (meaning that elections in years ending 0 are extremely important), however, for states with a small population (Wyoming, Montana etc.) it is as though the state itself is one congressional district, as they only have a single representative due to their tiny population. Representatives are elected directly by the voters in that region, although the regulations of polling and registration are largely up to the individual states (subject to some federal election law). The way in which candidates are selected for the congressional elections differ from state to state, though usually, they are put forward by the Republican or Democrat parties in that state.

Representatives serve 2 year terms with elections being held in every even-numbered year, on election day (the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November). The election that falls in between each general election is known as the mid-term election. Elections for representatives are held every 2 years to ensure that representatives are responsive to the changing opinions and interests of voters in their districts. Representatives may serve unlimited terms in office, and political scientists state that incumbent representatives hold a significant advantage over new candidates when it comes to the congressional elections. This is known as the incumbency advantage and exists due to their record to run on which they can use to demonstrate their legislative accomplishments (though this does not always influence voters greatly). Congressional hopefuls may also try to gain votes by promising jobs; for example, they may promise that they will vote in congress for programmes/projects which create jobs in their state/congressional district. The U.S. constitution also affords one structural advantage to incumbent congressmen which is that they are given $100,000 in free postage to send out election materials (it has been argued by political scientists that this is less of a benefit in the internet era). 

The Senate

Powers

Like the House of Representatives, the senate must also vote to pass a bill by a two-thirds majority before it may become law. However, also like the House of Representatives, the Senate holds some exclusive powers, as are determined by the constitution. These include the responsibility to hold impeachment trials should the House of Representatives choose to impeach an official in office, the ability to ratify treaties by a two-thirds majority and confirmation powers: the responsibility to vote to confirm the appointment of executive officers that require senate confirmation (these are usually appointed by the president, thus giving the senate a means to check the power of the president by rejecting their proposed ministers). 

Format

Regardless of population, each state is represented by 2 senators meaning that overall, there are 100 U.S. Senators. Generally, the Senate is considered to be more prestigious than the House of Representatives due to its longer terms, smaller size and more distant relation with the public.The senate is lead by the Vice-President of the United States (2^nd highest position in the executive branch) where they will only vote in the event of the need for a tie-breaking vote.

Appointment

In order to to be eligible to be elected to the Senate, you must be at least 30 years old, a U.S. Citizen for 9 years and a legal resident of the state you hope to represent. Originally, senators were selected by state legislatures but public election for senators became standardised in 1913. As with the elections for the House of Representatives, polling regulations and voter registration are up to the states themselves (subject to some federal election law). The way in which candidates are selected for the congressional elections differ from state to state, though usually, they are put forward by the Republican or Democrat parties in that state.

Two senators are elected by their state as a whole and they serve 6 year terms, though the terms are staggered so that approximately one third of the seats are up for election every 2 years, on election day. This election is usually preceded by a primary election within which the final candidates are determined. Like the representatives, senators may serve unlimited terms in office with incumbent senators also experiencing an advantage when it comes to re-election. Like the representatives, they too are afforded money for free postage. 

James Madison

James Madison was the fourth President of the United States of America and one of the founding fathers. Born in 1751 in Virginia, Madison was the son of a tobacco plantation owner. He became the largest landowner in Orange County Virginia and owned many slaves. His family house on the plantation, Montpelier, is still open today. 

Madison is known as the 'father of the constitution' because of his important role as the author of the Bill of rights, which was the first ten amendments to the constitution. Madison also helped to draft the constitution and ratify it. Madison did not sign the declaration of independence but is still seen as a founding father because of his work with the constitution.

Madison was the secretary of state under Thomas Jefferson at the time of the Louisiana purchase and, although it went against his and Jefferson's strict construction ideas about the constitution, they both went for the opportunity to get so much land and had it ratified in the senate. Madison was also involved in the famous case Marbury v. Madison which resulted in the supreme court getting the power to declare laws unconstitutional through the power of judicial review, which is effectively another check on the power of government. Later during his time as president the war of 1812 broke out and though he was unpopular for a point during the war, when the British pulled out it greatly boosted public opinion for Madison and started a decade of national pride and happiness which would later be known as the 'era of good feelings'.

James Madison never had any children and married late at the age of 42 to a widow. He died in 1836 at the age of 85, greatly outliving the life expectancy for the time.

John Hancock

John Hancock, born January 23rd 1737 in Braintree Massachusetts, was a significant colonial American in the 18th Century. He attended Harvard University and graduated in 1754, making Hancock one of the most educated men of his time, allowing him to use his skills to influence and change America.
Although he faced criticism from the public for openly living an expensive and wealthy lifestyle, Hancock was a key figure in the American Revolution. This was surprising due to his love of English culture and fashion, and general loyalty to the British. He was involved in protests against the British rule of America in the 1760s and 1770s, including in the wake of the Boston Massacre in 1770, where he chaired a committee which sought to vanquish the area of British forces.
Following the Continental Congress meeting in May 1775, Hancock was made Congress President. However his presidential influence was limited, meaning all he could offer at the time was his extensive resources to the Continental Army, led by George Washington.
Hancock was also the first to sign the Declaration of Independence in 1776, liberating the 13 states from the British. It was noted that Hancock's signature was written rather extravagantly, leading to the phrase, "leaving your John Hancock" being coined, when one is required to sign something. This in itself shows the importance of Hancock as a colonial American, as that phrase is still used today. But also, the fact that most men with wealth and an education like Hancock, in the 18th Century, supported the British, and Hancock chose to defect, highlights fundamental American ideologies, such as freedom and self reliance; he didn't want America to submit to the British dictatorship any longer. In addition, Hancock reached positions of power via democratic elections, such as in 1780, where he became the first governor of Massachusetts, despite initially not being popular with the public. His determination to succeed in a particular field and work hard for self improvement and fulfilment, is another key part of the American dream, exhibited by John Hancock.
On the 8th October, 1793, John Hancock died.

References:

https://www.landofthebrave.info/life-of-john-hancock.htm
http://www.biography.com/people/john-hancock-9327271
Unger, H. G. John Hancock: Merchant King and American Patriot. Oxford: Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2000.

Thomas Jefferson

Thomas Jefferson and his significance in establishing a distinctive American identity.

Thomas Jefferson was a leading figure in colonial America. As a founding father, Jefferson was one of the colonists chosen by the Continental Congress to help draft the Constitution. He was therefore key in establishing a distinctive American identity for creating the key ‘unalienable’ rights, values and liberties that America was founded on.

A distinctive feature of American identity that Jefferson helped establish was political and social freedom. The American political system was designed to create a stable, tyranny-free government. It ensured that no leading area of the government had more dominance and that the division of power was equal. In context, Jefferson was a supporter of the French Revolution against the elitist government, which arguably influenced his later ideas towards political democracy and liberty.[1]

Similarly, the constitution acted as a social foundation for Americans to live by. The constitution has been present in American identity, from providing equal opportunity to achieve the ‘American dream’, to more modern influences, such as challenging the civil rights of African-Americans by both individuals and grass-root organisations; including the NAACP.

Furthermore, religious freedom has been an additional underlying distinction in American identity, particularly through the separation of the Church from the State. This is reflected through him assisting the creation of the ‘Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom’ in 1777, which allowed religious freedom and separation.[2] This is relevant to the American identity of freedom, as it demonstrates being free to pursue your religion, without facing persecution or oppression from the state. It allowed religion to be embraced as a choice.

Sources:

https://www.landofthebrave.info/thomas-jefferson.htm

http://elonuniversity.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15446coll2/id/30

Picture:

https://www.whitehouse.gov/1600/presidents/thomasjefferson

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[1]Ian William Henderson, Jefferson's Greatest Challenge and Success: Defining an American Identity, Elon University, http://elonuniversity.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15446coll2/id/30, page 2.

[2]

Henderson, American Identity, Elon University, http://elonuniversity.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15446coll2/id/30, page 1.

4. Paul Revere

Paul Revere

Paul Revere was a Boston silversmith and colonial militia officer, extremely notable for his role in the American revolutionary war for which he is remembered as the archetypal patriot and a folk hero of sorts.

Born in Northern Boston on January 1st 1735 to parents of French origins, Revere experienced an ordinary childhood before becoming an apprentice silversmith at the age of 13, a profession that dominated most of his life either side of his military career in the revolutionary war and the events that preceded it. Revere's military involvement began with a brief stint in the British provincial army against the French in the 'French and Indian War' before he returned to Boston, now as the master of his father's silver shop. However, Revere truly rose to prominence for his role in organising resistance against the British stamp act of 1765, and for his role as a ringleader in the organisation and execution of the 'Boston Tea Party', an event intended to rebel against the British tea act of 1773 thus commencing a series of events culminating in American independence. However, despite these early successes, Revere's crowning moment came in April of 1775 when he warned the minutemen militia forces in Lexington and Concord of the arrival of British forces who, in their attempted stealth tactics, wished to quell the American rebel groups in the area. Revere achieved this through a lantern system involving the placement of one lantern in the steeple of Boston's 'Old North Church' to signify British mobilisation by land, and two lanterns to indicate that they were launching a sea-based attack. In combination with this, Revere rode to the surrounding military checkpoints and villages to warn of the coming conflict in an event romanticised and immortalised as his 'Midnight Ride'. Revere remained significant throughout the revolutionary war as an industrialist, helping to secure sufficient gunpowder supplies for the American forces, as a military officer and as a general activist, using his status and skill set to increase the efficiency of the American militia while mobilising support for the war effort.

In terms of how this relates to the development of an American identity, we may draw many conclusions, both literal and metaphorical. Firstly, there is an evident link between Revere's involvement in the fight for American independence and the development of their national identity, which fundamentally relied and still relies on their nation's success in this endeavor which in itself, is inextricably linked with America's maintained self-identification as a champion of liberty. However, the way in which Revere contributed to this effort using innovation and technology in the form of his lantern warning system and detailed designs for the reproduction of gunpowder mills is also telling in relation to the American identity. This is because America, both during the colonial era and indeed in the modern world is seen as a progressive nation based on scientific development and an emphasis on secularism, relative to Europe and in light of this, Revere's fusion of innovation in the interests of liberty and independence can therefore be argued to reflect the narrative of America as a whole, thus helping to constitute a significant part of their identity. This notion is only reinforced through an analysis of Revere's humble origins as a man not from nobility or the aristocratic classes associated with the European powers from which he sought independence, but one who struggled financially, particularly as a result of British legislation and rule. This adds an undeniable charm and power to the Revere story, cementing his status as an 'ordinary' hero and potentially foreshadowing the more modern notion of the American dream (integral to the American identity) as an individual who risked his life and worked tirelessly to help overthrow his oppressors and attain independence, that, not only manifested physically, is now woven into the fabric of American ideology. Finally, the American immigrant narrative is also reflected through Revere's own life who, with his French Huguenot origins, can be said to represent the power and importance of the various immigrant groups to America, as it was they who helped to establish it as a nation created in its own image.

Sources

http://www.biography.com/people/paul-revere-9456172
http://www.history.com/news/history-lists/11-things-you-may-not-know-about-paul-revere

William Bradford

William Bradford

William Bradford was born in 1590 in Yorkshire and died in 1657 in Massachusetts. 

He was one of the Pilgrim Fathers and was the leader of the Plymouth settlement which left Plymouth UK on September 6^th 1620 on the Mayflower ship.

 At the age of 12 William began to attend Separatists church meetings. Separatists were a group of people who wanted to be separate from the Church of England to create a ‘pure’ church. However at this time this was illegal in England to practice any religion other than the Church of England so they had to meet in secrecy.  When William was 18 the Separatists moved to The Netherlands where they were able to practice their religion more freely. There he married and had a son. In 1620 the Separatists decided to start their own colony in America so therefore William led the voyage to Massachusetts on the Mayflower. In November 1620 the Mayflower landed in Plymouth Bay Massachusetts. They were later known as the Pilgrims because of their quest to find religious freedom. Upon arrival William Bradford signed the first set of laws for the colony which was known as The Mayflower Compact. In 1630 the Massachusetts colony was established.

Bradford was one of the first to celebrate Thanksgiving in November 1621 when the Pilgrims and the Wampanoag Indians gathered at Plymouth for an autumn harvest celebration. 

William Bradford’s work ‘Of Plymouth Plantation’ was not published until 1856. He begun this work in 1630 and it is significant for the establishment of American identity as it is an account of the Pilgrims who voyaged to America and it is one of the first a first-person account of what life was like in America during early colonialism. His document is one of the best records of the Pilgrims struggles and gives an insight to their daily lives of the colonist for 27 years after arriving in Plymouth. William Bradford also helped shape and stabilize the political institutions of the first permanent colony in New England.   

Marilyn Kinnon's Post John Winthrop - Puritan

John Winthrop

John Winthrop (12 January 1588 - 26 March 1649) was famous for the founding, and as a leader of, the Massachusetts Bay Colony in New England. He was a strict Puritan and the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. John Winthrop and the Puritans believed that they would establish a pure church in New England  that would offer a model for the churches in the 'mother-land' and reform the Anglican Church.

Early life

He was born in was born on 12 January 1588 to wealthy parents Adam and Anne Winthrop
in  Edwardstone, Suffolk, England. John Winthrop had an excellent education, was  tutored at home, later attended grammar school and was admitted to Trinity College in December 1602

where he studied Law. Significance - the importance of education and study

Important early connections

Whilst attending Trinity he met two other Puritans who would feature in the history of the colonization of America and New England. The first was John Cotton, the grandfather of Cotton Mather who played a major role in the Salem Witchcraft Trials and the other was John Wheelwright -see later. Winthrop was drawn to the importance of community and working with others but perhaps  not tolerant of those whose opinions differed from his own.

 

Religion in the UK

Charles I became king in 1624 and the Puritans were under threat due to their religious beliefs. John Winthrop believed that safety lay in the New World. John Winthrop was one of 20,000 Puritans who journeyed to America between 1620 and 1640.He travelled on the ship called the Arbella on which he made his famous 'City upon a hill' sermon. Winthrop aspired to the notion of freedom especially religious freedom and was prepared to face the challenges of the New World to achieve it.

The 'City Upon a Hill' Sermon 1630
Whilst aboard the Arbella, the ship that took Winthrop from England to the New World, he made a sermon which included the following quote:

"For we must consider that we shall be a city upon a hill. The eyes of all people are upon us, so that if we shall deal falsely with our God in this work we have undertaken, and so cause Him to withdraw His present help from us, we shall be made a story and a byword through the world."

The Significance of the Sermon
'City upon a hill' is a biblical phrase in Matthew 5:14 "You are the light of the world. A city that is set on a hill cannot be hidden". John Winthrop preached that the new community of Puritans in the New World would be a "city upon a hill", watched by the world, an example of what could be achieved by the Puritans who had a strong work ethic and were motivated by their religion and desire to create a government and society that was tied to the church.

John Winthrop believed that that once the world saw this great city it would follow example set by Puritans and create a Utopian society - the New England Way.John Winthrop's effort to create a Puritan "City on a Hill"  is seen to have  had a lasting effect on American values, with the phrase appearing in the speeches of Ronald Regan and Obama. Winthrop here appears to demonstrate the exceptionalism of the America- the place of someone special where dreams can be achieved. Especially by those who work hard and follow the rules of the church and State.

Political career
John Winthrop was instrumental in developing the Cambridge Agreement allowing the immigration of Puritans, who would control the government and the charter of the Massachusetts Bay company and its trading potential. He secretly planned to develop a religion based government. The Cambridge Agreement was signed 26 August 1629 and provided means for emigrating shareholders to buy out non-emigrating shareholders of the Massachusetts Bay Company.In 1636 he clashed with Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson and was forced to banish them from the colony. In March, 1637, John Wheelwright, the brother-in-law of Anne Hutchinson, was convicted of sedition and contempt because his religious views departed from orthodox Puritanism. Winthrop was clearly an ambitious personality with the need to ensure that his powers were not challenged. He showed considerable intolerance towards those with alternative views. 

 

Sources

https://www.landofthebrave.info/john-winthrop.htm

   
   
        
   
   
   

   
       

   

   
   

Massachusetts

             
                                                   (Plymouth Rock, Massachusetts)

On December 20th, 1620, 102 Pilgrims arrived in Massachusetts. Their ship, the Mayflower, was blown off course en route to Virginia and subsequently William Bradford and the Pilgrims landed in what later became known as Massachusetts. Upon arrival, the Pilgrims came across an English speaking Native American called Squanto. He had initially been enslaved by Thomas Hunt and taken to Spain in 1614, but managed to escape to England, where he learnt English. After returning to North America in 1619, Squanto became an interpreter for the Pilgrims and helped establish their colony.

Massachusetts is the 6th State of the United States of America, having been admitted on the 6th February 1788. It was nicknamed the 'Bay State' by its early settlers, who recognised the large number of bays on Massachusetts' coastline. Its name derives from the Algonquian Indian term for the 'great mountain'.



References:

http://www.50states.com/massachu.htm
http://www.ushistory.org/
http://www.masshome.com/tour.html
http://www.history.com/topics/pilgrims
http://www.biography.com/people/squanto-9491327

The Province of New York

This image is of the original Castello plan of New Amsterdam

The Province of New York was one of the original thirteen British Colonies in America along the Eastern Seaboard. The area was originally settled by the Dutch who set up along the Hudson river in 1624. Later they would set up a colony on Manhattan island which was known as new Amsterdam. In 1664 the English took control of the area and it was renamed New York, after the brother of King Charles II, James II, who was the Duke of York at this point.

When New York was acquired by the English, a lot of Dutch and Belgian settlers did not leave as they had already established themselves in the community. This led to New York being one of the most diverse British colonies, a legacy which has lasted to the present day.

There is an urban legend that Manhattan Island was bought from either the Lenape or Delaware Native Americans for $24 worth of trade goods. This idea is thought to have started because of an account from 1626 where it is written Peter Minuit, leader of the Dutch East India Company in New Amsterdam bought Manhattan. In reality, the Native Americans had no idea of land ownership so did not mind that the settlers were there.

The success of New York could have been down to the Fur trade, which was set up under the Dutch and heavily expanded under English rule, there are other factors however as the English were just building upon the foundations left by the Dutch before them. Another factor for the success could be down to the exploitation of black slaves. New York was the biggest importer of Slaves in the 1690's and the slaves became a major element in both New York city and in upstate New York where they worked on the farms. These slaves also led to a new wave of ethnic and cultural diversity in the state of New York, this diversity makes New York what it is today, and shows how, even from the beginning of its colonial history, it has been one of the most diverse areas in the country.

Virginia

Virginia was categorised within the band of ‘Southern Colonies’. The origins of it name relate to the former English Monarch Queen Elizabeth I for her supposed chastity, and it was the colony the first English people came to under the reign of King James I.

Virginia was best known for its large profits in tobacco plantations. These were important in Virginian society, where it quickly became a colony full of wealthy landowners and servants.

Jamestown, Virginia, was successfully colonised in 1607. Initial difficulties arose due to its lack of farming, causing a period of ‘starving time’ during the Winter, where only 1/5^th survived. Jamestown only really prospered from the profits created by tobacco farming and sales abroad. It’s extortionate profits were consequences of its occasional taxation at more than 100% its price, producing huge profits for the English. Tobacco income from Chesapeake made approximately £200,000 per year, and eventually trade with Chesapeake produced 2/3^rd of all the mainland trade all together.

Early shortages of labour came the large diaspora of white indentured servants, who normally had a 4-7 year contract to work on land. It allowed them to have their transportation and accommodation at least partly paid for them, and also gave them the opportunity to earn money for their work. It benefited those who couldn’t afford to purchase their own land. They became an important focus of the society as up to ¾ Chesapeake arrivals came as indentured servants.

Overall, Virginia was hugely important in the colonisation of America. It’s historical influence continued to increase with the first arrivals of slaves in 1619 and the expansion of the slave trade, whereby 45% of the populations of Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina and Georgia consisted of slaves.  

Picture:
http://www.virginiamemory.com/blogs/out_of_the_box/2013/05/22/tobacco-census-fixing-the-frauds-and-mischiefs-of-the-tobacco-trade/

Sources:

Jack P. Greene and J.R.Pole, ‘The Blackwell Encyclopedia Of The American Revolution’ 1991.

Howard Temperley and Christopher Bigsby, ‘A New Introduction To American Studies’, 2013.

http://www.statesymbolsusa.org/symbol/virginia/state-name-origin/origin-virginia